Impact of Maternal Stress, Depression, and Anxiety on Child Development
Impact of Maternal Stress, Depression, and Anxiety on Child Development
Abstract
This paper reviews the current literature on the impact of maternal stress, depression, and anxiety on child development, with a particular focus on developmental outcomes in children based on maternal history. Studies have consistently shown that maternal mental health during pregnancy and early childhood can have a negative impact on child development, including language development, socio-emotional development, and cognitive development. The paper discusses potential pathways by which maternal mental health influences child development, including prenatal programming, epigenetic modifications, and stress reactivity, and reviews potential moderating or exacerbating factors, including socio-economic status, parenting practices, and genetic factors. The paper proposes a quantitative research project to investigate the relationship between maternal stress, depression, and anxiety and developmental outcomes in young adulthood and examines the implications of these findings for understanding the long-term effects of maternal mental health on child development. The findings of this study could inform interventions to support the mental health of mothers and promote positive developmental outcomes for their children. Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: The abstract needs procedural details. How is the study being done? Participant details. Who will be in the study and where will they come from? List the measures to be used and the hypothesis(es)
Impact of Maternal Stress, Depression, and Anxiety on Child Development Maternal stress, depression, and anxiety during pregnancy and early childhood are widely
recognized as significant risk factors for problematic child development. Various factors, including maternal mental health status, socio-economic status, and environmental factors, can influence children’s developmental outcomes (Nunes Cauduro et al., 2019). In recent years, research has increasingly focused on the relationship between maternal stress, depression, anxiety, and child development outcomes. There is growing evidence that maternal stress, depression, and anxiety can have a negative impact on child development, including language development, socio-emotional development, and cognitive development (De Oliveira et al., 2019; Nolvi et al., 2022). Furthermore, the long term effects of maternal stress, depression, and anxiety during the early years of child development may persist into adulthood, potentially impacting a range of outcomes, including mental health, academic achievement, and employment opportunities (Eberle et al., 2021). In the United States, it is estimated that one in nine women experience experiences depression during pregnancy (Bauman et al., 2020). Furthermore, approximately 11-20% of women experience anxiety during pregnancy (Suzuki & Eto, 2020). Globally, the prevalence of antenatal depression is estimated to be between 10-20% (Insan et al., 2023). These estimates underscore the importance of understanding how maternal stress, depression, and anxiety can impact child development. Despite the growing body of research on maternal mental health and child development, there are still gaps in our understanding of the complex relationships between these factors. For example, there is a need for more research on the specific mechanisms by which maternal stress, depression, and anxiety influence child development and the factors that may moderate or exacerbate these effects into adulthood.
The critical paperThis research project aimsed to review the current literature on the impact of maternal stress, depression, and anxiety on child development, with a particular focus on
developmental outcomes in children on maternal history. By synthesizing and analyzing the existing literature, this paper will aim to identify critical gaps in our understanding of the relationships between maternal mental health and child development and to develop hypotheses for future research. The study will focus on specific developmental outcomes in children, such as language and socio- emotional development, and will aim to identify the unique contributions of maternal mental health to these outcomes.
This literature review will begin by providing an overview of the theoretical framework that supports our understanding of the impact of maternal stress, depression, and anxiety on child development. It will then discuss the empirical evidence on the relationship between maternal mental health and child development, with a focus on focusing on language development. Next, we will review the potential mechanisms by which maternal mental health influences child development, including prenatal programming, epigenetic modifications, and stress reactivity. Finally, we will explore potential moderating or exacerbating factors, including socio-economic status, parenting practices, and genetic factors.
Literature Review Maternal Stress, Depression, Anxiety, and Developmental outcomes
The empirical evidence on the relationship between maternal stress, depression, anxiety, and development is complex and multifaceted. Studies have consistently shown found that maternal mental health during pregnancy and early childhood can have a negative impact on child development, including language development, socio-emotional development, and cognitive development (Lahti-Pulkkinen et al., 2020). For example, Urizar and Muñoz (2021) found that maternal depression during pregnancy was associated with lower language scores in children at age 4. A study by van den Heuvel et al. (2021) also investigated the effect of maternal stress on language development in infants. They found that maternal stress was associated with reduced language development in infants, suggesting that maternal stress may have a negative impact on language development ASimilarly, a study by Henrichs et al. (2019) found that maternal anxiety during
pregnancy was associated with higher emotional and behavioral problems in children at age 3. Similarly, a study by Sebők-Welker et al. (2023) found that maternal stress was associated with increased behavior problems in children aged 3-6 years.A study by van den Heuvel et al. (2021) investigated the effect of maternal stress on language development in infants. They found that maternal stress was associated with reduced language development in infants, suggesting that maternal stress may have a negative impact on language development. Similarly, a study by Sebők-Welker et al. (2023) found that maternal stress was associated with increased behavior problems in children aged 3-6 years.
Mechanisms of Influence
The mechanisms by which maternal stress, depression, and anxiety influence child development are complex and multifaceted. According to Lautarescu et al., (2019), oOne potential pathway is through prenatal programming, whereby maternal stress hormones alter the fetal hormonal environment and influence fetal development. According to Lautarescu et al., (2019), and colleagues found cortisol levels during pregnancy are associated with altered neural development in the fetus. Another potential pathway is through epigenetic modifications, whereby maternal stress, depression, and anxiety can alter gene expression patterns in the developing fetus (Nowak, et al., 2020), According to the findings of a study by Nowak and colleagues (2020), maternal depression experienced during pregnancy wasis connected with epigenetic alterations in genes that are related to stress reactivity in the child. Finally, maternal stress, depression, and anxiety can influence child development through their impact on maternal behavior (Zoubovsky et al., 2020). Maternal behavior can be affected by maternal stress, depression, and anxiety, leading to changes in parenting practices and interactions with the child. This, in turn, can influence child development outcomes.
Moderating or Exacerbating Factors
Several factors may moderate or exacerbate the impact of maternal stress, depression, and anxiety on child development. For example, socio-economic status has been identified as a potential moderator, with studies suggesting that the negative impact of maternal mental health on child development is alarming. Studies have found that the negative impact of maternal mental health on child development is particularly pronounced for children from lower socio-economic backgrounds (Guhn et al., 2019). Some studies have also suggested that the negative impact of maternal stress, depression, and anxiety may be mediated by maternal sensitivity and responsiveness to the child’s needs. Maternal stress can lead to reduced maternal sensitivity and increased negative parenting behaviors, which can, in turn, negatively affect the child’s emotional and behavioral development (Ahrnberg et al., 2021). One study found that maternal stress was indirectly related to child behavioral problems through maternal sensitivity (Eller et al., 2022). Another study found that maternal anxiety was associated with an increased risk of insecure attachment in infants, but only when maternal sensitivity was low (Fuertes et al., 2020). Also, Whittenburg et al. (2022) found that maternal warmth and sensitivity during infancy can buffer the negative effects of maternal depression on a child’s cognitive development. These findings suggest that maternal sensitivity may be essential in buffering the negative impact of maternal stress, depression, and anxiety on child development.
In addition to maternal sensitivity, other factors may also moderate the impact of maternal stress, depression, and anxiety on child development. For example, the child’s temperament and genetic predisposition may influence their susceptibility to the effects of maternal stress(reference). For example, Oneone study found that children with difficult temperaments were more vulnerable to the negative effects of maternal depression on emotional development than
children with easy temperaments (Hentges et al., 2021). Another study found that the impact of maternal depression on child behavior was more substantial for children with a particular genotype associated with heightened sensitivity to stress (Hartman et al., 2019).
Purpose of Study
The literature suggests that maternal stress, depression, and anxiety can negatively affect socio-emotional development. However, the impact of maternal mental health on child development is complex and may be moderated by other factors, such as maternal sensitivity, child temperament, and genetics. The primary purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between maternal stress, depression, and anxiety and developmental outcomes in young adults. The study aims to fill a gap in the literature by examining the long-term effects of maternal mental health on developmental outcomes in young adulthood. Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: I think you need to make a stronger case, referring back to the literature, that many of the impacts of maternal mental health have been studied in children or during childhood. Your project will expand the scope of this investigation into young adulthood. Otherwise, the study purpose seems to come out of left field, as much of what was reviewed was on children.
Hypotheses: Based on the literature review, the following hypotheses are proposed for this study:
1. Higher levels of retrospectively reported maternal stress, depression, and anxiety during the first five years of the child’s life will be associated with poorer socio-emotional development in young adulthood. Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: There are no measures of this in the methods section.
2. Higher levels of retrospectively reported maternal stress, depression, and anxiety during the first five years of the child’s life will be associated with poorer language development in young adulthood. Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: There are no measures of this in the methods section.
The study will employ a quantitative research design and use regression analysis to test the hypotheses. The findings of this study will have important implications for understanding the long-term effects of maternal mental health on child development and for developing interventions to support the mental health of mothers and promote positive developmental outcomes for their children.
Method
Participants
The study will include a sample of 200 participants aged 18-25 from a variety of socio-economic backgrounds. The participants will be recruited from a variety of sources, including online advertisements, social media, university campuses, and community centers. The proposed sample will include an equal number of male and female participants, and attempts will be made to will be stratifystratified by socio-economic status, ethnicity, and age. Additionally, attempts will be made to the sample will be recruitedrecruit from both urban and rural locations. To ensure the accuracy of the data, participants will be asked to provide documentation of their age, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status. Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: I would also list SONA the college’s psych101 pool and indicate the social media is both through the social network of the PI as well as posting the study link in places/forums where young adults might see it. Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: Given your potential sample size it might be hard to do, but you can propose to aim for stratification. Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: This might be difficult for you to do, although if you have a solid online recruitment you might get a rural, suburban and urban mix.
Procedure
The study will take place in a variety of locations, such as universities, community centers, and online. Participants will be recruited through online advertisements, social media platforms, and university campuses. Upon recruitment, participants will be asked to provide documentation of their age, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status. This information will be used to ensure that the sample is representative of the general population in terms of age, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status. Participants will be informed of the objectives, methods, and procedures of the study. They will then be asked to voluntarily provide informed consent to participate. All data collected will be kept confidential and used only for the purpose of the study. Furthermore, participants will be informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any point without penalty or prejudice. . Upon recruitment, participants will first be asked to com plete a demographic form asking about age, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status. This information will be used to ensure, as much as is possible, that the sample is representative of the general population in terms of age, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status. By recruiting a diverse sample, the results of the study will be reliable and generalizable to the population as a whole.
Participants will be asked to complete an online survey and a series of questionnaires. The survey will include questions about demographic information, socio-economic status, and maternal mental health status during pregnancy and early childhood. The questionnaires will
include the Beck Depression Inventory-II, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Parenting Stress Index. Additionally, participants will be asked to provide information regarding their child’s developmental outcomes, such as language development, socio-emotional development, and cognitive development. Further, the survey will also inquire about potential risk factors influencing the child’s development, such as exposure to parental stress, lack of access to health care and educational resources, and financial strain. By providing this information, the study will be able to gain a comprehensive understanding of the mother-child dyad, and the potential risk factors associated with the child’s development. Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: At this point I am confused about who the participants are and the focus of the study. So far it has listed young adults as the target population. In that case, they would fill out surveys or report on their mother’s mental health retrospectively. Which might be hard with these measures but possible. The wording would have to be changed so they report on how often they remember their mother experiencing the symptoms from say age 0-10. Otherwise, as is indicated here, the mother would fill out the forms and she would have a child on young adulthood (18-30). She would fill out the forms based on her perceptions of when the child was 0-10 (or whatever age span you think) and then will list any developmental issues that her child had in childhood or has currently. You will need to work out these issues with study design as it is two very different studies. Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: None of these things were represented in the measurement section below or in the hypotheses. You will need to either indicate how they will be measured/have them in the hypotheses or drop them. Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: Also, you might consider doing a secondary analysis or already existing data. If you want to have children as the participants there are already existing national data sets with child health and parental variables in them. Because the data is publicly available and de-identified you would not have to go through the higher-level IRB review. For example, the National Survey of Children’s Health collects data on child health and development and also on the physical and mental health of the parents. Have a look at the data webpage and if this seems like a good idea to you we can meet and go over the data set and how you will incorporate it into your project. https://www.childhealthdata.org/browse/survey https://www.childhealthdata.org/App_Themes/Main/Contents/nsch/content-map/2020-2021_NSCH_Content_Map_Child_and_Family_Health_Measures_CAHMI_8.1.22.pdf
Measures
The study will use a range of measures to assess the relationship between maternal stress, depression, and anxiety and developmental outcomes in young adulthood.
Maternal Depression. The Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) will be used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in participants. The BDI-II is a 21-item self-report questionnaire that is widely used to assess the presence and severity of depressive symptoms in adults. The questionnaire has demonstrated high levels of internal consistency and test-retest reliability (Cole et al., 2014). Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: Reference Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: What is the scoring and scaling?
Maternal Anxiety. .The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) will be used to assess trait and state anxiety in participants. The STAI is a 40-item self-report questionnaire that is used to measure both trait (i.e., general level of anxiety) and state (i.e., current level of anxiety) anxiety in adults. Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: Reference. Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: What is the scoring and scaling? Reliability and validity is needed.
Additionally, the Parenting Stress Index (PSI) will be used to assess levels of parenting stress. The PSI is a 120-item self-report questionnaire that is used to assess parenting stress in adults (Barroso et al., 2016). Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: What is the scoring and scaling? Reliability and validity is needed
Finally, a survey will be used to assess demographic information, socio-economic status, maternal mental health status, and the child’s developmental outcomes.
Apparatus and Materials Comment by Rapoza, Kimberly: You are doing primarily a survey study. You don’t need this section. You don’t have any unique materials.
The study will use a range of apparatus and materials to collect data. Participants will complete an online survey, questionnaires, and a series of interviews. For the online survey and questionnaires, the study will use a laptop computer and the internet to administer the survey and questionnaires. Additionally, the study will use audio- recording devices to record the interviews. The audio-visual recordings will be used to ensure accuracy and to allow for accurate analysis of the data. Furthermore, the study will use a coding manual to facilitate the coding of the audio recordings. The coding manual will include a set of codes that will be used to identify key themes and patterns in the data. Finally, the study will use a software program to analyze the data collected from the survey and questionnaires. The software program will be used to generate descriptive statistics and to identify relationships between the variables.
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